persons of the dıalogue: an athenıan stranger; cleınıas, a cretan; megıllus, a lacedaemonian

athenian stranger. tell me, strangers, is a god or some man supposed to be the author of your laws?

cleinias. a god, stranger; in very truth a, god: among us cretans he is said to have been zeus, but in lacedaemon, whence our friend here comes, ı believe they would say that apollo is their lawgiver: would they not, megillus?

megillus. certainly.

ath. and do you, cleinias, believe, as homer tells, that every ninth year minos went to converse with his olympian sire, and was inspired by him to make laws for your cities?

cle. yes, that is our tradition; and there was rhadamanthus, a brother of his, with whose name you are familiar; he is reputed to have been the justest of men, and we cretans are of opinion that he earned this reputation from his righteous administration of justice when he was alive.

ath. yes, and a noble reputation it was, worthy of a son of zeus. as you and megillus have been trained in these institutions, ı dare say that you will not be unwilling to give an account of your government and laws; on our way we can pass the time pleasantly in about them, for ı am told that the distance from cnosus to the cave and temple of zeus is considerable; and doubtless there are shady places under the lofty trees, which will protect us from this scorching sun. being no longer young, we may often stop to rest beneath...

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persons of the dıalogue: socrates, who is the narrator; menexenus; hıppothales; lysıs; ctesıppus. scene: a newly-erected palaestra outside the walls of athens.

ı was going from the academy straight to the lyceum, intending to take the outer road, which is close under the wall. when ı came to the postern gate of the city, which is by the fountain of panops, ı fell in with hippothales, the son of hieronymus, and ctesippus the paeanian, and a company of young men who were standing with them. hippothales, seeing me approach, asked whence ı came and whither ı was going.

ı am going, ı replied, from the academy straight to the lyceum.

then come straight to us, he said, and put in here; you may as well.

who are you, ı said; and where am ı to come?

he showed me an enclosed space and an open door over against the wall. and there, he said, is the building at which we all meet: and a goodly company we are.

and what is this building, ı asked; and what sort of entertainment have you?

the building, he replied, is a newly erected palaestra; and the entertainment is generally conversation, to which you are welcome.

thank you, ı said; and is there any teacher there?

yes, he said, your old friend and admirer, miccus.

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persons of the dıalogue: socrates, who is the narrator; menexenus; hıppothales; lysıs; ctesıppus. scene: a newly-erected palaestra outside the walls of athens.

ı was going from the academy straight to the lyceum, intending to take the outer road, which is close under the wall. when ı came to the postern gate of the city, which is by the fountain of panops, ı fell in with hippothales, the son of hieronymus, and ctesippus the paeanian, and a company of young men who were standing with them. hippothales, seeing me approach, asked whence ı came and whither ı was going.

ı am going, ı replied, from the academy straight to the lyceum.

then come straight to us, he said, and put in here; you may as well.

who are you, ı said; and where am ı to come?

he showed me an enclosed space and an open door over against the wall. and there, he said, is the building at which we all meet: and a goodly company we are.

and what is this building, ı asked; and what sort of entertainment have you?

the building, he replied, is a newly erected palaestra; and the entertainment is generally conversation, to which you are welcome.

thank you, ı said; and is there any teacher there?

yes, he said, your old friend and admirer, miccus.

ındeed, ı replied; he is a very eminent professor.

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persons of the dıalogue meno; socrates; a slave of meno; anytus

meno. can you tell me, socrates, whether virtue is acquired by teaching or by practice; or if neither by teaching nor practice, then whether it comes to man by nature, or in what other way?

socrates. o meno, there was a time when the thessalians were famous among the other hellenes only for their riches and their riding; but now, if ı am not mistaken, they are equally famous for their wisdom, especially at larisa, which is the native city of your friend aristippus. and this is gorgias' doing; for when he came there, the flower of the aleuadae, among them your admirer aristippus, and the other chiefs of the thessalians, fell in love with his wisdom. and he has taught you the habit of answering questions in a grand and bold style, which becomes those who know, and is the style in which he himself answers all comers; and any hellene who likes may ask him anything. how different is our lot! my dear meno. here at athens there is a dearth of the commodity, and all wisdom seems to have emigrated from us to you. ı am certain that if you were to ask any athenian whether virtue was natural or acquired, he would laugh in your face, and say: "stranger, you have far too good an opinion of me, if you think that ı can answer your question. for ı literally do not know what virtue is, and much less whether it is acquired by teaching or not." and ı myself, meno, living as ı do in this region of poverty, am as poor as the rest of the world; and ı confess with shame that ı know literally nothing about virtue; and when ı do not know the "quid" of anything how can ı know the "quale"? how, if ı knew nothing at all of meno, could ı tell if he was fair, or the opposite of fair; rich and noble, or the reverse of rich and noble? do you think that ı could?

men. no, ındeed. but are you in earnest, socrates, in saying that you do not know what virtue is? and am ı to carry back this report of you to thessaly?

soc. not only that, my dear boy, but you may say further that ı have never known of any one else who did, in my judgment.

men. then you have never met gorgias when he was at athens?

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persons of the dıalogue: socrates; protarchus; phılebus.

socrates. observe, protarchus, the nature of the position which you are now going to take from philebus, and what the other position is which ı maintain, and which, if you do not approve of it, is to be controverted by you. shall you and ı sum up the two sides?

protarchus. by all means.

soc. philebus was saying that enjoyment and pleasure and delight, and the class of feelings akin to them, are a good to every living being, whereas ı contend, that not these, but wisdom and intelligence and memory, and their kindred, right opinion and true reasoning, are better and more desirable than pleasure for all who are able to partake of them, and that to all such who are or ever will be they are the most advantageous of all things. have ı not given, philebus, a fair statement of the two sides of the argument?

philebus nothing could be fairer, socrates.

soc. and do you, the position which is assigned to you?

pro. ı cannot do otherwise, since our excellent philebus has left the field.

soc. surely the truth about these matters ought, by all means, to be ascertained.

pro. certainly.

soc. shall we further agree-

pro. to what?

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persons of the dıalogue

phaedo, who is the narrator of the dialogue to echecrates of phlius

socrates

apollodorus

sımmıas

cebes

crıto

attendant of the prıson
phaedo

scene: the prison of socrates

place of the narratıon: phlius

echecrates. were you yourself, phaedo, in the prison with socrates on the day when he drank the poison?

phaedo. yes, echecrates, ı was.

ech. ı wish that you would tell me about his death. what did he say in his last hours? we were informed that he died by taking poison, but no one knew anything more; for no phliasian ever goes to athens now, and a long time has elapsed since any athenian found his way to phlius, and therefore we had no clear account.

phaed. did you not hear of the proceedings at the trial?

ech. yes; someone told us about the trial, and we could not understand why, having been condemned, he was put to death, as appeared, not at the time, but long afterwards. what was the reason of this?

phaed. an accident, echecrates. the reason was that the stern of the ship which the athenians send to delos happened to have been crowned on the day before he was tried.

ech. what is this ship?

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persons of the dıalogue: socrates; phaedrus. scene: under a plane-tree, by the banks of the ılissus.

socrates. my dear phaedrus, whence come you, and whither are you going?

phaedrus. ı come from lysias the son of cephalus, and ı am going to take a walk outside the wall, for ı have been sitting with him the whole morning; and our common friend acumenus tells me that it is much more refreshing to walk in the open air than to be shut up in a cloister.

soc. there he is right. lysias then, ı suppose, was in the town?

phaedr. yes, he was staying with epicrates, here at the house of morychus; that house which is near the temple of olympian zeus.

soc. and how did he entertain you? can ı be wrong in supposing that lysias gave you a feast of discourse?

phaedr. you shall hear, if you can spare time to accompany me.

soc. and should ı not deem the conversation of you and lysias "a thing of higher import," as ı may say in the words of pindar, "than any business"?

phaedr. will you go on?

soc. and will you go on with the narration?

phaedr. my tale, socrates, is one of your sort, for love was the theme which occupied us -love after a fashion: lysias has been writing about a fair youth who was being tempted, but not by a lover; and this was the point: he ingeniously proved that the non-lover should be accepted rather than the lover.

soc. o that is noble of him! ı wish that he would say the poor man rather than the rich, and the old man rather than the young one; then he would meet the case of me and of many a man; his words would be quite refreshing, and he would be a public benefactor. for my part, ı do so long to hear his speech, that if you walk all the way to megara, and when you have reached the wall come back, as herodicus recommends, without ...

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persons of the dıalogue: socrates; protarchus; phılebus.

socrates. observe, protarchus, the nature of the position which you are now going to take from philebus, and what the other position is which ı maintain, and which, if you do not approve of it, is to be controverted by you. shall you and ı sum up the two sides?

protarchus. by all means.

soc. philebus was saying that enjoyment and pleasure and delight, and the class of feelings akin to them, are a good to every living being, whereas ı contend, that not these, but wisdom and intelligence and memory, and their kindred, right opinion and true reasoning, are better and more desirable than pleasure for all who are able to partake of them, and that to all such who are or ever will be they are the most advantageous of all things. have ı not given, philebus, a fair statement of the two sides of the argument?

philebus nothing could be fairer, socrates.

soc. and do you, the position which is assigned to you?

pro. ı cannot do otherwise, since our excellent philebus has left the field.

soc. surely the truth about these matters ought, by all means, to be ascertained.

pro. certainly.

soc. shall we further agree-

pro. to what?

soc. that you and ı must now try to indicate some state and disposition of the soul, which has the property of making all men happy.

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persons of the dıalogue: socrates, who is the narrator of the dialogue to his companion; hıppocrates; alcıbıades; crınas; protagoras, hıppıas, prodıcus, sophists; callıas, a wealthy athenian. scene: the house of callias

com. where do you come from, socrates? and yet ı need hardly ask the question, for ı know that you have been in chase of the fair alcibiades. ı saw the day before yesterday; and he had got a beard like a man-and he is a man, as ı may tell you in your ear. but ı thought that he was still very charming.

soc. what of his beard? are you not of homer's opinion, who says

youth is most charming when the beard first appears? and that is now the charm of alcibiades.

com. well, and how do matters proceed? have you been visiting him, and was he gracious to you?

soc. yes, ı thought that he was very gracious; and especially to-day, for ı have just come from him, and he has been helping me in an argument. but shall ı tell you a strange thing? ı paid no attention to him, and several times ı quite forgot that he was present.

com. what is the meaning of this? has anything happened between you and him? for surely you cannot have discovered a fairer love than he is; certainly not in this city of athens.

soc. yes, much fairer.

com. what do you mean-a citizen or a foreigner?

soc. a foreigner.

com. of what country?

soc. of abdera.

com. and is this stranger really in your opinion a fairer love than the son of cleinias?

soc. and is not the wiser always the fairer, sweet friend?

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the republic of plato is the longest of his works with the exception of the laws, and is certainly the greatest of them. there are nearer approaches to modern metaphysics in the philebus and in the sophist; the politicus or statesman is more ideal; the form and institutions of the state are more clearly drawn out in the laws; as works of art, the symposium and the protagoras are of higher excellence. but no other dialogue of plato has the same largeness of view and the same perfection of style; no other shows an equal knowledge of the world, or contains more of those thoughts which are new as well as old, and not of one age only but of all. nowhere in plato is there a deeper irony or a greater wealth of humor or imagery, or more dramatic power. nor in any other of his writings is the attempt made to interweave life and speculation, or to connect politics with philosophy. the republic is the centre around which the other dialogues may be grouped; here philosophy reaches the highest point to which ancient thinkers ever attained. plato among the greeks, like bacon among the moderns, was the first who conceived a method of knowledge, although neither of them always distinguished the bare outline or form from the substance of truth; and both of them had to be content with an abstraction of science which was not yet realized. he was the greatest metaphysical genius whom the world has seen; and in him, more than in any other ancient thinker, the germs of future knowledge are contained. the sciences of logic and psychology, which have supplied so many instruments of thought to after-ages, are based upon the analyses of socrates and plato. the principles of definition, the law of contradiction, the fallacy of arguing in a circle, the distinction between the essence and accidents of a thing or notion, between means and ends, between causes and conditions; also the division of the mind into the rational, concupiscent, and irascible elements, or of pleasures and desires into necessary and unnecessary --these and other great forms of thought are all of them to be found in the republic, and were probably first invented by plato. the greatest of all logical truths, and the one of which writers on philosophy are most apt to lose sight, the difference between words and things, has been most strenuously insisted on by him, although he has not always avoided the confusion of them in his own writings. but he does not bind up truth in logical formulae, --logic is still veiled in metaphysics; and the science which he imagines to "contemplate all truth and all existence" is very unlike the doctrine of the syllogism which aristotle claims to have discovered.

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